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Hippies in Moscow, the Stilyagi Movement.

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 6 Comments

November 9, 2015

StilyagiHipsters2In the late 1950’s, after the death of Joseph Stalin, the USSR was in disarray, despite crackdowns and tightening of communist social standards, many saw Stalin’s death as an opportunity for rebellion and change. Among these were the Stilyagi, the Russian equivalent of America’s hippie movement. The Stilyagi dressed outlandishly, idolized the west and listened to music dubbed decadent and capitalist by the powers that be. This movement was meant to express the rebellious desires of the children of the Soviet elite, it entailed 3 main facets, worship of America and the west, dance and music that was typically frowned upon or forbidden, and outlandish clothing and styles.

The first element of Stilyagi culture was worship of America and the west. The Stilyagi attempted to breach soviet cultural norms by openly approving of and appreciating the culture of western Europe and America. An excellent example of what the common people of the USSR thought of this can be drawn from a satirical paper called “Crocodile” which wrote an article about Stylagi in 1949, as the movement was just starting, it had this to say about them :

“The stilyaga knows the fashions all over the world, but he doesn’t know Griboedov, as you’ve discovered yourself. He’s studied all the fox trots, tangos, rumbas, lindy hops in detail, but he confuses Michurin with Mendeleev, and astronomy with gastronomy. He’s memorized all the arias from Sylvia and Maritza, but doesn’t know who wrote the operas Ivan Susanin and Prince Igor.”

The contempt for one so immersed in western culture is clear, Crocodile is attempting to equate the interest in the West with stupidity, and arrogance, in line with common communist agendas of the day. At the same time it demonstrates an excellent (if critical and exaggerated) exemplification of Stilyagi culture, the young man described in the text is well versed in western fashion, history and culture but knows nothing of Russia by comparison.

The second element of Stilyagi culture is dance and music that was highly frowned upon, or in some cases illegal in the USSR. Examples include Jazz, Rock and all forms of music from the west, in the same Crocodile article, the author discusses a dance the Stilyagi man it describes does, saying this about it:

“I had long ago noticed that, whatever ordinary dance music–a waltz or krakowiak–was playing, the stilyaga and Mumochka were doing some sort of horribly complicated and absurd movements, something in between a can-can and the dance of the savages from the Land of Fire. Their ecstatic exertions had them twisting around in the very center of the circle.”

again, the contempt for the dance and music of the Stilyagi was clear, with Russian dance music and classical dances like the Waltz being held up as an example of “normal” while the Stilyagi dance is “horribly complicated” and  “absurd”. The author again takes a dig at them for breaking societal norms, and in this way shows the leavings over of Stalinism, despite the declining helath and eventual death of the dictator the political elite clung to his politics becuase they were in positions of power and change might mean they would lose that power. The same reaction to the Bolshevik movement was seen in the Tsarist government before the October revolution, and was seen in America in the 60’s and 70’s.

The final pillar of the Stilyagi was outlandish clothing. The literal translation of Stilyagi actually means “Style Hunters” which is a reference to the Stilyagi’s extensive searching for black market clothes from the west, in the article from Crocodile, the author describes the Stilyagi man’s clothing:

“He looked incredibly absurd: the back of his jacket was bright orange, while the sleeves and lapels were green; I hadn’t seen such broad canary-green trousers since the days of the renowned bell-bottoms’; his boots were a clever combination of black varnish and red suede.”

Again, the contempt is palatable, the author describes him as “absurd” and makes a point of describing the brightness of  his clothes. Stilyagi were obsessed with making a scene of their desire to look western, and this example is, though extreme, not far from the truth. Their dress was so extreme, that in some places roving mobs of more conservative citizens would attack them with scissors and cut their hair and clothes in an effort to discourage such behavior.

Eventually, the Stilyagi movement planted the seeds of the cultural rebellion that matured in to the full on cultural overthrow at the end of the USSR, and though they were not political rebels, they starting the ball rolling on a much bigger movement than one simply concerned with looks and music.

 

Sources: Stilyagi the movie

Stilyagi and Teddy boys

Stilyagi dance video

Crocodile Article

17 Moments

Stilyagi definition and further reading 

Image source

Revolution Against the Revolution, How Estonia Hijacked Soviet Propaganda

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 5 Comments

November 2, 2015

 

Singing RevolutionIn the post World War Two era the USSR found itself in a strong position, with most of Eastern Europe under its control, and a great armed threat to its existence annihilated, the Soviets were safe within their lands again, but they needed to consolidate their gains, and to do so they needed to harness previously un tapped sources of propaganda. In Estonia, that propaganda came in the form of a traditional singing festival originally started to preserve Estonian national identity in the face of the Tsars. The USSR attempted to harness it for their own purposes, making the festival about the fraternity of Socialist Republics and forcing the participants to carry Soviet slogans and signs, but the Estonians reversed it on them, they used the festival to bind their people together even more tightly, and to preserve and promote their identity with their own unique and long standing traditions.

The revolution is typically described as starting in the late 1980’s, but the truth is that it started far sooner than that, with the first post war singing festival in 1947, the Soviet government was attempting to harness the strong national spirit of the Estonian people to bring them in to the fold, but the Estonians had other plans. The Estonians went along with the Soviet plans for the festival, but they retained their national unity until the time was ripe for them to declare independence in 1991 as the USSR crumbled. Examples of the national unity that kept the Estonians going all those years can be seen everywhere, in one particular artifact it is particularly evident. The former Estonian national anthem (reinstated in 1990) is full of pride, and unity essential to such a small and vulnerable nation:

“My native land, my joy, delight,
How fair thou art and bright!
And nowhere in the world all round
Can ever such a place be found
So well beloved as I love thee,
My native country dear!”

While the Moscow government assumed that the people singing this song meant Russian when they said “Native Land” the vast majority of Estonians referred to their own country.

Ultimately, this iron willed national unity brought about the end of Soviet rule of Estonia in the Singing Revolution of the late 80’s, and was quickly followed by the independence of the rest of the Baltic states.

 

 

Sources: http://www.local-life.com/tallinn/articles/estonian-singing-revolution

https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/index.php/movements-and-campaigns/movements-and-campaigns-summaries?sobi2Task=sobi2Details&sobi2Id=26

Estonian National Anthem

Estonia Sings Images

Estonia Sings

Tactics, Tanks and the Largest Battle Ever Fought.

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 0 Comments

October 27, 2015

postOn the fifth of July, 1943, the Wehrmacht commenced its last major offensive along the eastern front, and also kicked off the largest battle in human history. Nearly a million Germans, supported by thousands of tanks and aircraft, launched a furious attack against the Red Army, which had amassed 2.5 million men around Kursk, and constructed extensive and elaborate defenses. During the battle, the Soviets employed a variety of new tactics, such as “Ironing” (as depicted above) and extensive use of defense in depth, and brought the full power of their industrial might to bear, massing nearly 7,500 tanks for the battle.

The cultural artifact i selected is a prime example of Russian anti tank tactics that were being pioneered in the summer of 1943, this particular example is known as “ironing”. in 1941 and 1942, Russian troops again and again demonstrated a fear of German armor that was, at times, crippling to their capacity to defend against it. Ironing was used to condition troops to not fear tanks, they would be put in trenches, and tanks would drive over them repeatedly until there was no more fear of tanks in the troops in the trenches. this tactic was used to help counter the chronic shortage of effective anti tank guns the Soviets faced at Kursk, troops would hide in their trenches until the armor passed over them, then spring up to separate them from following infantry, allowing Russian infantrymen to close with the now isolated tanks and use demolition charges, AT grenades and AT rifles to disable or destroy them. A first hand account of this tactic as seen from the German side comes from German infantryman Raimund Rüffer, “A movement to my right. I twisted to see
a camouflaged cover being thrown off a trench. I
instinctively yelled a warning, dropped to one knee
and squeezed the trigger of my rifle. The butt kicked
and a round was sent hurtling toward a faceless Soviet
soldier. In that same instant I was knocked off my feet
as though hit by a heavyweight boxer. A Soviet round
had struck me in the shoulder, shattering the bone and
leaving me gasping for air.”

Another tactic the Soviets utilized at Kursk that was pioneered in World War Two was the use of defense in depth, whereby defenses were constructed in layers, due to the inability of any single line to hold back the entire offensive, the Germans would instead be slowed and worn down by the first lines, and then stopped by those behind them. Once they were stopped, vicious armored counter attacks slammed in to their flanks, and caused massive casualties, in this way, the soviets were able to stop the enormous German counter attack, and then go on the offensive themselves.

The second deciding factor at the battle of Kursk was the massive industrial superiority of the Soviet Union, the massive industrialization drives payed off with a huge material superiority over the Germans. Though the German tanks were typically superior, especially so in the case of the Tiger and Panther tanks, the Soviet T-34s outnumbered them two to one at all times during the battle, in some areas outnumbering them by much higher margins. The Soviet air force also was able to achieve air superiority through the vast amount of materials they were supplied with, being able to replace any destroyed aircraft within days, while the Germans suffered issues with production facilities at home, as well as partisan attacks on supply trains, this led to fewer sorties, and the close air support that was so critical to German Blitzkrieg tactics was not available for the attack, leaving the ground forces in a grinding battle of attrition for which the Soviets were much better prepared. As their forces became bogged down, the German forces could no longer use the high speed manuver warfare upon which their forces depended for victory, resulting in massive casualties and the most disastrous defeat of the Nazi war machine since the battle of Stalingrad.

 

sources: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/famous-battles-of-world-war-two/the-battle-of-kursk/

Battle of Kursk Images

http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-kursk
http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-kursk-germanys-lost-victory-in-world-war-ii.htm
http://www.historynet.com/the-battle-of-kursk-clash-of-the-tanks.htm

Article 1

Soviet Tanks: Creating Heroes and Winning the War(s)

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 1 Comment

October 20, 2015

In 1937 when Boris Laskin wrote “Three Tank Drivers” the Nazi war machine was ramping up its modernization and mobilization efforts and tensions were building in the East as the Japanese prepared for an excursion in to Soviet territory. On the home front the second five year plan was coming to an end, an era of rapid and large scale industrialization that had been the primary object of socialist rhetoric for the last ten years was concluding, and a new plan was being drawn up. These events gave socialist propaganda planners a clear objective: spur the common people to new heights of achievement and direct their efforts towards industrial preparation for the war that was sure to come. They did this in a number of ways, the primary form of course being that of Socialist Realism in art, literature and music. The particular example I have selected focuses on a tank crew in Manchuria, tanks were a major focus of the Soviet propaganda machine, they were a product of industrialization, linking the efforts of the people to the war effort in a very direct manner; they also provided tank aces as heroes to the Russian people, giving them legendary figures to rally behind and inspiring them to work harder to produce war machines for the motherland.

The song I selected is a story of three tank crewmen on the far eastern borders of the Soviet Union, here they await orders, and are told to attack the Japanese when they cross the border, presumably at the battle Lake Khasan, a Soviet victory in the border conflicts. One of the focuses of this piece is linking tanks to mass culture and common workers in the Soviet Union. Following the form of Socialist Realism, this song uses simple language, powerful imagery and nameless characters to create a strong association with the common people of Russia, for all we know the three tankers could have been workers themselves before they joined the Red Army! The song is also used to demonstrate to the workers of Russia how their hard work is being put to use, describing exclusively the action of the tanks, which would be produced in factories manned by these same workers, this gives them a common connection with the soldiers in the form of the tank, and raises their sympathy to the Red Army and thus their support of the conflict. Tanks and Aircraft were commonly the subject of propaganda pieces, they demonstrated the wondrous new technology that the five year plans had brought, and at the same time gave the workers a stake in the war because they manufactured these war machines.

The second method that was utilized by the Soviets to manipulate tanks and their drivers for propaganda was the creation and veneration of tank heroes. Great aces, frequently common people, would be recognized nationally for their achievements and held up as a shining example for the rest of the nation to behold. This trend strongly echoes the Shock Worker and Stakhanovite movements, glorifying individuals for their achievements and using their behavior to inspire and set standards for the rest of the populace. One of the finest examples of this is the story of Mariya Oktyabrskaya, a Ukranian woman who’s husband was killed by the Nazis at Kiev, she was a stout communist and a factory worker, the perfect candidate for a propaganda drive, so when she sold her possessions and offered to buy a tank for the Army on the condition that she be allowed to drive it, the military agreed to her terms. She went on to pave a path of destruction across the steppes, in much the same way as the three tank drivers in the song answer the call of their country. Throughout her career she demonstrated a high level of skill and bravery before being killed in action. Her story was the subject of a massive propaganda drive, designed to show workers that the men and women of the Red Army were just like them, and that they needed all the support they could get from the industrial base of the Soviet Union. This was repeated many times with various other pilots and tank drivers, giving workers heroes to rally behind, much like they once rallied behind Alexi Stakhanov.

All in all, Soviet Realism succeeded as a propaganda technique, its simple language and clear goals led to many excellent works of propaganda that succeeded in driving the industrialization drive and war effort forward at a fever pitch.

 

Sources: http://www.cracked.com/article_22526_5-epic-true-stories-wartime-revenge.html

Socialist Realism

http://www.badassoftheweek.com/index.cgi?id=64071327108

Mass Culture in Soviet Russia by James von Geldern and Richard Stites (pg 319)

Stakhanov and Stalin: Rapid Industrialization and its Role in Stalinism

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 4 Comments

October 12, 2015

On the night of August 31st 1935, a 30 year old coal minder named Aleksei Stakhanov cut 102 tons of coal in under six hours, more than 14 times the standard coal quota for his mine. In a single evening of fervent work, the new soviet workers movement, Stakhanovism, was born, and a hero of labor was created. Stakhanovism played in to the policy of rapid industrialization that was so central to Stalinism, it provided a hero to the people, and drove them to work harder to achieve goals which brought Russia in to the modern era. The movement was not without its flaws however, and low quality of production, and a reckless disregard for safety while chasing records are amongst its greatest failings.

The advent of the Stakhanvite movement can be seen as an attempt by the administration of the USSR to revive the failing industrialization drive after the end of the NEP. While Stalin was busy suppressing political uprisings, and incarcerating people in Gulags (aprox 11 million people), the vast numbers of workers who died due to shortages, accidents and political crackdowns (aprox 20.6 million people) resulted in slower industrial growth as a result of the loss of labor force, and this necessitated a morale and production boost in the form of a new hero, and a new movement. When the Stakhanvite movement came along, it provided both to the administration of the USSR, with Stakhanov providing a perfect example of a model soviet citizen, and sparking a workers movement that overshadowed even the shock worker movement. Stakhanvite’s set new records across the country, pushing ever higher in pursuit of records of production and all the privileges which attended such feats. The efficiency of steel furnaces and mills increased, and overall production was up by (according to a Stakhanov himself) 82% in comparison to the 63% envisioned by the second five year plan. The movement provided momentum to the second five year plan, and political capital as workers began to truly embrace the benefits of communism, striving hard to improve overall quality of life in the country, and receive nicer accommodations and higher pay for their feats in the mine pits or on the factory floors.

The movement, however, was not without its flaws, and its success was highly overstated by the government. The idea that a country could experience 14 percent GNP growth per year with over 30 million of its people being killed or underemployed in the same time is preposterous, and though the economy grew it was not quick enough, as we can see in the remainder of the USSR’s economic history and its eventual collapse. The speed with which workers began to operate also resulted in a lowering of overall work quality, and created supply issues when Stakhanvite’s were rewarded with higher pay and finer living quarters. Some scholars even propose that Stakhanov’s record was simply a publicity stunt, orchestrated for propaganda purposes, and that the simple reorganization of how work was done was not enough to meet the incredibly high goals of the second five year plan. In time, Stakhanvite’s came to be resented, and in modern times the term is used in a derogatory manner to refer to workers obsessed with over achieving. In the end, Stalin’s obsession with cultural transformation  and political control torpedoed the chances of the second five year plan meeting its goals, the loss of labor force, forced collectivization and rapid movement to the cities coupled with the push for faster, if less high quality work, created by the Stakhanvite movement resulted in slowed economic growth, and eventually the internal rotting and collapse of the economy of the USSR.

Sources: Mass Culture in Soviet Russia by James Von Geldern and Richard Stites (Pg. 238-243)

Rosefielde: Stalinist Economic Development in the 1930’s (Pg. 277-289)

http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/history-and-mythology/aleksey-stakhanov/

Year of the Stakhanovite

The War on the Church

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 2 Comments

October 6, 2015

In the early 1920’s, the newly solidified government of Russia began seeking to consolidate its gains and secure its future as the sole ruling group in Moscow. One of the primary objectives they set before themselves was the destruction of the Eastern Orthodox church, thus began years of anti religious campaigns, church closings and occasional, violent clashes with villagers fighting for their religion. While Communist party and Marxist rhetoric does preach a creed of strict atheism, the attacks on the church went above and beyond what was called for, and occurred far too rapidly, building a great deal of resentment amongst the rural villagers with whom the urban party leaders had such a large disconnect. In some examples, local police would shut down a church against the resistance of locals, and religious activism to save the church was widespread and vigorous. In spite of this, urban party leaders and communist intellectuals pressed the attack, not realizing that they were alienating the largest single economic and social class in Russia at the time. Examples of this include Leon Trotsky’s article “Vodka, The Church and Cinema” which exemplifies the superiority complex, and patronizing attitude towards peasants that was endemic in Moscow during the years of the NEP, when the attack on the church was at its height. Trotsky’s view of peasants as simpletons who were entertained by repetition and sensual stimulation demonstrates the clear and profound misunderstandings of the party leadership regarding the complex and and deep seated relationship between the rural farmers and the Orthodox Church. The result of this deep misunderstanding was ultimately the loss of support from the rural population for the communist government, which contributed in turn to the ultimate fall of the Soviet Union.

 

Sources: https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/women/life/23_07_12.htm

Churches Closed

https://books.google.com/books?id=B8ur9CbLauAC&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=account+of+church+closing+resisted+by+villagers+russia&source=bl&ots=fARXsXkL6x&sig=w0bHoEMtILCGelk-hVC4vgZyIDU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMIiMGSwoCsyAIVCpENCh2y9AfJ#v=onepage&q=account%20of%20church%20closing%20resisted%20by%20villagers%20russia&f=false

Cinema as a Weapon of Revolution

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 6 Comments

September 21, 2015

In 1923 Leon Trotsky wrote an article for Pravda in which he explored the relationship of the church to the revolution, espoused the virtues of Cinema as a tool for re educating the masses, and went about describing how cinema could be used as a weapon by the Bolsheviks to destroy alcoholism and religion within the budding USSR. Unsaid in Trotsky’s article, but equally important is the reason that the Bolsheviks were such ruthless, cunning and productive propagandists, the need for political capital to keep the revolution alive and ensure they retained their hard won strongly motivated the hard push for propaganda films, and the modernization and streamlining of the Communist propaganda machine.

In his article, Trotsky details the ways in which the peasant classes had been indoctrinated by the church, and also describes briefly the issue with alcoholism in Russia in the early 20th century, throughout the course of his writing, Trotsky lays out in detail the reasons that cinema can supplant religion and drinking in Russian culture. The first, and arguably most important reason that cinema was a vital method of distributing propaganda was that it could reach the illiterate, in 1920, only 2 out of five Russian adults could read (Kenez Pg 30) and this meant that leaflets, newspapers and magazines could not reach the target audience, they had succeeded in indoctrinating the liberal intellectuals, but a different method would be required to reach the masses. Cinema provided the perfect vehicle, it was interesting, straightforward, an advanced new technology that generated vast interest in all, young, old, rich and poor. In his article, Trotsky details how similar it is to the church, in that it stimulates the sense, brings people together, and provides theatrical entertainment, the key difference being that the cinema provides a multitude of different stories, while the church played out the same story, over and over again. Because of its newness, and because of its variation, Trotsky argues that the cinema can replace the church in the lives of the masses, and at the same time be used to control and direct them through propaganda. In the long term, history did not bear out Trotsky’s prediction, it would seem that he underestimated how entrenched in rural culture religion was, and despite initial short term success, in the end Eastern Orthodoxy made a comeback as soon as the communist propaganda machine collapsed with the rest of the USSR.

The reason that Trotsky and the Bolsheviks pushed cinema so hard as a mode of propaganda is primarily the need for political capital so that they could continue to reshape Russia, the position of the communists in 1923 was precarious, they had defeated the White/Green/Black armies arrayed against them, but they still stood at the precipice of political catastrophe. In order to retain power, they needed everyone on board with the new program as fast as possible, and leaflets and magazines which wouldn’t reach 3/5th’s of the population simply would not cut it. In keeping with the Bolshevik theme of cleaving to urban workers and new technology, the cinema was utilized as an antithesis for the backwardness and superstition of religion, with party leaders believing that the factors i described above would bring them the political might to rebuild Russia in to a communist utopia. In the short term, this was successful, and Russia rapidly underwent a cultural revolution, resulting in the USSR as we know it.

In conclusion, the cinema was a vital part of Bolshevik propaganda, and its effective usage is in a large way responsible for the creation and sustainment of the USSR,  however, in the long run it was not quite enough, and the failure of communism to bridge the gap between urban intellectuals and the rural masses eventually brought it down.

 

Sources: https://books.google.com/books?id=VGE4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=the+use+of+cinema+for+propaganda+in+soviet+russia&source=bl&ots=9CJ2FhZQ-w&sig=n3EuU0HzxhnUI20TXrr0sFsNck4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEkQ6AEwCGoVChMItOO0xKOGyAIVS5iACh3pIQt-#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://www.academia.edu/6387163/A_Study_of_Soviet_Propaganda

the-city-rises-1911

The City Rises: Russian Futurism as a Driving Force for Revolution

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 4 Comments

September 6, 2015

Russian Futurism was a style of art originating in Russian in the early 20th century, initially, it was poetry and literature, a group of young artists seeking to change the status quo as artists so often do. The first futurist painting, “The City Rises” by Umberto Boccioni, shows the hustle and bustle of modern urban life in the wake of the industrial revolution, and demonstrates plainly the futurist fascination with modern machines and the urban life. In a large part, the painting is driven by the chaos of the city, and in contrast to previous forms of Russian art, is much more dynamic, and less focused on detail, with a higher emphasis on the themes of modernization and change. These themes in Futurism can be seen as a window in to the collective cultural conscience of a nation that was gearing up for change, which eventually culminated in the revolution of 1917.

 

Futurist artists in the early 20th century found themselves in a world with no shortage of inspiration, with the coming of the industrial revolution, class lines began to blur more than ever before, and the lower classes set their eyes upon the high living standards of the upper classes. As they labored in the cities, they became more educated, and ever more discontent with their continual exploitation by the rich. The Futurists latched on to this discontent, portraying it in works of art and poetry, continually challenging the traditional way of things and further pushing the masses towards change. The factors which drove the revolution can clearly be seen in their art, the modernization of Russian industry, the chaos and danger of life within a city, and, to a lesser degree, the plight of the working classes can be seen clearly in almost all forms of futurist art, while at the same time Russian Futurists constantly spit in the face of convention and the establishment, ridiculing them and refusing to accept the system that was currently in use.

 

In this, the first ever futurist painting, we can clearly see the standard Futurist trademarks. The bright color of the painting works in concert with the fuzzy, chaotic lines to convey a scene of confusion and hustle. We can also see that the workers in the painting are almost blended in with the beasts of burden and the machines being used, similar lines and colors almost seeming to equate the urban workers to nothing more than animals or expendable machines. Another example of this is the anonymity of the faceless workers, in direct opposition to detailed conventional art, the workers in this piece do not have faces, and are thereby further de-humanized, reducing them further to the level of tools of industry. The overall grand scale of the painting completes the scene, with the massive city eclipsing all others, driving at the cultural theme that, individually the workers are nothing, but when united they can perform feats far beyond any single man.

 

In conclusion, this painting is a fine example of the overall attitude of the working class in Russia just prior to the revolution, and demonstrates many of the themes and tenets that eventually caused the revolution, and allowed it to succeed.

 

image source: http://distortedarts.com/icons-umberto-boccioni-city-rises/

 

Rus

The Role of Women in 19th Century Russia

mvalentine / Uncategorized / 6 Comments

August 29, 2015

In 1865 Nikolai Leskov published a novel entitled “the Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District”, in this story Leskov chronicles the drama of a discontented merchants wife and her enthralling, if short sighted, lover. In the long run of course, the truth comes out, and the main character Katerina is caught in the act after killing three members of her family to ensure she can remain with her young consort. Taken against the overall background of Russian society in the 19th century, one of the primary themes is made very clear, against a background of social unrest and constant modernization and westernization which threatened the fundamental social fabric of Russian society, Leskov attempts to reinforce the traditional role of women. The way in which he goes about it is rather brilliant, using a dual “carrot and stick” method.

The primary method by which Leskov attempts to make his point is by pointing out the consequences of women breaking from their roles, or disobeying men. This can very clearly be seen early on in the story when Katerina becomes bored at home, and quickly begins an affair with one of her husband’s clerks. At first, their love is idyllic, and despite both of them being somewhat concerned with regards to what will happen when they are discovered, they continue on in this affair until discovered by Katerina’s father in law, at which point she murders him and the whole story begins to spiral down. Leskov seems to be saying by this sudden downturn of fortune that Katerina should have remained faithful, and continued in her womanly duties, and though she had been bored, she would have been better off if she had simply remained in her role. Leskov also seems to point out the catastrophic consequences he believes can ensue from women breaking out of their established roles and simply doing as they please. This can be seen as a reaction to increased westernization, and modernization of Russia in the latter half of the 19th century, which eventually led (in part) to the Bolshevik revolution and the overthrow of the Russian government.

The second and more subtle method Leskov uses to drive at this theme is the implementation of incentives for women who stay in their roles. Note the powerful contrast and descriptive language used by Leskov to describe Katerina at the beginning and end of the story. As the novel starts, Leskov extols Katerina’s virtues, describing her beauty, and the idyllic, if boring life she leads with her family. Katerina is certainly not the happiest at the beginning of the story, but she is very comfortable, and for the most part content. By comparison, at the end of the story, Leskov writes little about her appearance, instead choosing to focus on how miserable she is, and how despised she is by most everyone. This seems to be directed at Russian women in a similar situation to Katerina, living idyllic but boring lives in relative comfort, Leskov contrasts this against the prisoners life and seems to offer up the former as superior, encouraging Russian women to remember their place and reap the benefits the receive, no matter how bored they may become.

All in all, Leskov’s story provides a compelling case for the women of 19th century Russia to remain where they are, and to never forget what too much mischief could get them, strongly reinforcing traditional Russian culture.

 

Image source: http://www.amazon.com/Shostakovich-Macbeth-Mtsensk-Vishnevskaya-Rostropovich/dp/B000002RRI

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