Vlad the Blogger

While the state-run record label Melodiya controlled much of what was popular on the Russian airwaves, many young (rather rebellious) Russians began to fall in love with Western rock n’ roll. Influenced by bands like The Rolling Stones, Deep Purple and especially The Beatles (although Paul McCartney was denied entry into the country throughout the 1980s), Russian folk artists or “bards,” as well as newly forming rock groups began to cover some Western hits, and finally pen some of their own. As much of this music was “unspoken and unacknowledged,” it took awhile for rock music to become accepted in Soviet Russia.

Tatyana Nazarenko: Dance Floor (1977)
Rock music spread slowly but inexorably across the Soviet Union, helped by tape recorders and other ingenious homemade recorders. The surest sign of its permanence was when it replaced traditional dance music in villages and provincial towns.
Source: Irkutsk Regional Art Museum. 1998.

So many of the popular Russian songs of the time were written declaring one’s “love for the Motherland” or “love for the Communist party.” Artists including David Tukhmanov, Bulat Okudzhava and Vladimir Vysotskii became well-known as their lyrics slowly began to break this mold. Informal concerts also began to take place in apartment complexes and university halls, and bootleg copies of albums were being produced; it was clear that this music was taking a hold on the Russian youth.

(“My Address is the Soviet Union” by David Tukhmanov and V. Kharitonov)

In the late 1970s, Russian bands were starting to conform to the heavier sounds coming from the West, as opposed to the more folk-influenced music of the Bards. Russian band, Mashina Vremeni (in English, “Time Machine“ started gaining more popularity around this time, in particular after they began writing rock songs in Russian. Here is a link to their song, “Povorot.”

Mashina Vremeni in their heyday. (Source:http://www.mirinform.ru/)

The youth of the time period, as the New York Times put it,  “demanded a break from the past.” Rock n’ roll was a way of loosening ties to the strict Communist past, and of instigating change in this revolutionary period.

(Even the Beatles knew that Russia was a state destined to be influenced by rock n’ roll…

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Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melodiya

http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/paul-mccartney-finally-back-in-the-ussr/238263.html

http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/kultura_i_obrazovanie/muzyka/ROK-MUZIKA_V_ROSSII.html

http://soviethistory.macalester.edu/index.php?page=subject&SubjectID=1973rock&Year=1973

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_rock

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashina_Vremeni

http://search.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/110495248/A8B2B0A11AC4A7FPQ/5?accountid=14826

Life Magazine: The Cornball Act Down on the Farm (1959)
Khrushchev visit to an American corn farm, with a goal of bolstering his program against Soviet critics, attracted considerable attention in the United States as well.

Similar to the grain problem of the previous decade, Russia also began to see a shortage of corn around the turn of the 1960s. Nikita Khrushchev, also the mastermind behind the Virgin Lands Campaign, decided it was time to run a similar campaign to solve this problem. He stated, “There will be no communism if our country has as much metal and cement as you like but meat and grain are in short supply.” Corn, which can be used as feed for livestock, was running low but Khrushchev wanted to use it as a “fodder crop,” which in turn would increase the livestock numbers in the country.

Soloviev: Hybrid Seeds are the Rule for High Corn Harvests! (1956)
Source: International Poster Gallery. 1998.

Corn seed was initially imported from, ironically, the United States of all countries because of our high corn production. A corn research institute was also created in Ukraine, along with other corn initiatives. As a result, by 1962, Russia was growing 37 million hectares of corn. Compared to a mere 4.3 million hectares in 1954, this was huge. Because of this new investment in corn, 14,000-15,000 workers were appointed to work the fields in Ukraine– a rather large number of field workers.

Millet, Buckwheat, Rice (1965)
Source: International Poster Gallery. 1998.

This campaign, while on the surface appeared to help Russia, did have a few rough patches that eventually led to its ultimate demise. The weather in some regions turned to be unfit for corn growth– 70-80 percent of the corn in these regions ended up dying because of this. According to Comrade Medvedovsky, Vice-Chairman of the Cherkassy Province Executive Committee, “Harvest operations are going badly. Corn remains to be reaped from about 100,000 hectares. Rain is holding up the work. In the past five days we have collected corn from 7000 hectares, whereas earlier we were collecting it from more than 25,000 hectares in the same length of time. What will happen next? All depends on the weather. But we shall manage before Nov. 1.”

During this whole ordeal, the production of another essential crop, hay, had declined. Coalitions of farmers believed corn to be the culprit, and this “alien crop” had to go.

(Video on Khrushchev’s trip to Iowa, where he learned to plant corn)

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Koziov, A. “LET US NOT LEAVE A SINGLE STALK OR A SINGLE EAR IN THE FIELD!”Current Digest of the Soviet Press. East View Information Services, 23 Nov. 1960. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. <http://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/13818570>.

Von Geldern, James. “1961: Corn Campaign.” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. <http://soviethistory.macalester.edu/index.php?page=subject&SubjectID=1961corn&Year=1961>.

“Virgin Lands Campaign.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Oct. 2014. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign>.

Official Soviet Peace Rally
Source: USA-USSR Society for Cultural Relations: Soviet Politics and the Aesthetics of the Communist State. 200.

In 1953, the USSR set off their first hydrogen bomb at the Semipalatinsk test site in Kazakhstan. This “super-bomb” was determined to surpass the power of their atomic bomb, which they had detonated four years prior. The hydrogen bomb explosion was “many times greater than that of the atom bomb” and the project was headed by two Russian physicists: Igor Kurchatov and Andrei Sakharov, who designed the bomb based on an image of a “layer cake.”

At the time of the test-explosion, Russia was the sole owner of any plans regarding a hydrogen bomb. Previously, through espionage work in the United States, they managed to gather atomic bomb plans. The United States did not manage to create their own hydrogen bomb until the following year.

US Newspaper headline, responding to the Soviet H-Bomb tests. (Source: The Detroit Free Press)

Following the tests of the hydrogen bomb, Russia then tested multiple new versions of the atomic bomb. Through similar research, the soviets also attempted to continue work on producing efficient forms of atomic energy to use towards “peaceful progress.” While working on the hydrogen bomb, however, the United States feared that they would “lose the world to Russia.” Essentially, we would lose the arms race.

Although things looked to be in Russia’s favor, Russian chairman of the Council of Ministers Georgii Malenkov feared the growing global tensions due to the creation of the hydrogen bomb. He stated in a 1954 speech that the growing danger of “a new world war, which with modern weapons means the end of world civilization.” This pretty much destroyed his political career, as many other leaders believed this would cause fear and discontent amongst the Russian people.

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Siegelbaum, Lewis. “1954: Hydrogen Bomb.” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. Web. 24 Oct 2014. <http://soviethistory.macalester.edu/index.php?page=subject&SubjectID=1954bomb&Year=1954>.

The Current Digest of the Russian Press: http://dlib.eastview.com.ezproxy.lib.vt.edu:8080/browse/doc/13833946 (GOVERNMENT ANNOUNCEMENT OF TEST OF A HYDROGEN BOMB IN THE SOVIET UNION)

The Current Digest of the Russian Press: http://dlib.eastview.com.ezproxy.lib.vt.edu:8080/browse/doc/13834143 (TASS REPORT ON TESTS OF NEW TYPES OF ATOMIC BOMBS IN THE SOVIET UNION)

By, W.L. (1950, Jan 2. BUILD NEW BOMB, DR. UREY DEMANDS. New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.vt.edu:8080/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/111542345?accountid=14826

During World War II and even post-war, the Soviet Union was infamous for its deportation and xenophobic policies. This began in 1943, as the NKVD marched one million ethnic minorities, in particular the Kalmyks, from their homes into what is now Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Many of these groups were charged with treason, under the assumption that they were spies for the Germans. These refugees were transported by cattle cars and even in trucks supplied to the Soviets by the United States. According to this New York Times article, some were even relocated to a site where the Russians did atomic bomb tests.

Lev Brodaty: A Common Language (1942)
This cartoon from Krokodil shows the Soviet peoples, including peoples of the Caucasus, united in their opposition to the German invaders. The cartoon by coincidence was published on the eve of the great deportation. (Source: soviethistory.mcalester.edu)

Post-war, the Soviets took this xenophobic behavior even further, as they restricted access to the West in 1947. This meant that Soviet citizens could not even talk to friends and relatives outside of the Soviet Union, no matter how trivial the topic. Much of this was due to the fact that Russia was devastated from war, and Stalin did not want the United States and other allies to discover this. They broadcasted an image of false “military might” to the rest of the world and did everything to keep up this appearance.

Kukryniksy: Clever Invention (1947)
The incandescent lamp was invented by comrades Iablochkov and Lodygin.
Yes, but the Americans invented the idea that they invented it!
Source: William Nelson, ed.: Out of the Crocodile’s Mouth. Washington: Public Affairs Press. 1949.

“This entailed denying the West accurate knowledge about the true situation within the Soviet Union by waging a massive counter-intelligence campaign, by prohibiting even the most mundane contacts between Soviet citizens and foreigners, and by severely curtailing the movements and activities of Western diplomats, attachés, journalists and even tourists” (Freeze 399).

Viktor Koretskii: Loose Lips Help the Enemy
Source: Electronic Museum of Russian Posters. 2004.

On the media and cultural side, this also meant condemning all things non-Russian: Camembert cheese from France was renamed zakusochnyi (“snack cheese”, aviation was declared a “Russian technology developed with little western help.” Propaganda to deter citizens from sharing information with their neighbors was also imposed on the country.

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Von Geldern, James. “1943: Deportation of Minorities.” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Oc. 2014.

Von Geldern, James. “1947: Xenophobia.” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Oct. 2014.

Freeze, Gregory L. Russia: A History. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1997. Print.

“Kalmyk Deportations of 1943.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Nov. 2013. Web. 16 Oct. 2014.

Walz, Jay. “Soviet Deportings Receive Credenge.” New York Times [New York] 18 Oct. 1949: 9. Print.

Ivan Shagin: The First Passengers on the Metro (1935)
Source: Grigori Chudakov, Olga Suslova, and Lilya Ukhtomskaya, eds.: Pioneers of Soviet photography. New York: Thames and Hudson. 1983.

While Stalin called for a “passion for construction” in the First Five-Year Plan, he wanted a “passion for mastering technology” to come out of the Second Five-Year Plan. The construction of the Moscow Metro combined both of these passions, in what became the most marveled mass-transit project of the twentieth century.

Poster for the Moscow Metro. Source: soviethistory.mcalester.edu

Dating back to 1923, plans for a metro in Russia’s most innovative city had been present; it was not until 1933, however that the Soviet government approved the plan. A trolley system was first built (as it is an easier system to construct), but after the success of this line, Stalin wanted something bigger: a full-scale metro. The designs were based on those of similar German projects, calling for an “open-pit” method, which would require large portions of the city to be shut down. In time, they moved to a completely underground method, where construction would occur seemingly unnoticed.

Detail from Kiev Station, Moscow
Source: Artemii Lebedev: Moscow Metro. 1996.

What is perhaps the most notable aspect of these metro stations, is their sheer grandiose. “The Moscow Metro, a massive engineering project that ‘mocked utility with its stations clad in semi-precious stone’, became an object of not only Muscovite but national pride” (Freeze 361). The decor of the Metro symbolizes the prevalence of Stalinism in not only the city of Moscow, but Russia as a whole. The Moscow Metro is still used today (by millions daily), and made life for the Russians, as Stalin put it, “more joyous.”

(Video featuring the modern Moscow Metro)

References:

Freeze, Gregory L. Russia: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Print.

By, H.D. (1935, June 16). MOSCOW FINDS SYMBOLS IN ITS SUBWAY. New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.vt.edu:8080/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/101479904?accountid=14826

“Moscow Metro.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 29 Sept. 2014. Web. 10 Oct. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Metro>.

Von Geldern, James. “1934: The Moscow Metro.” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. Web. 10 Oct. 2014. <http://soviethistory.mcalester.edu/index.php?page=subject&SubjectID=1934metro&Year=1934&navi=byYear>.

(source: spartacus-educational.com)

No matter the time period, no matter the location, the status of women has always been in question. As the Bolsheviks came to power, women in Russia began to see themselves on a more equal field; legislation like the Code on Marriage, the Family and Guardianship made divorce easier for women, children born out of wedlock received rights and both spouses were finally given the right to own property. With laws like this, Russia, although not perfect in the eyes of feminists, was one of the most progressive countries at the time in terms of gender (Seventeen Moments).

One woman in particular, Alexandra Kollontai, made huge strides to promote the equality of women. During her studies, Kollontai became fascinated with Marxism; she wanted social equality for all, and especially amongst her female peers. She became the Commissar of Social Welfare, making her the most important woman in the new government. Kollontai founded the Zhenotdel, the women’s branch of the Communist Party, in which she attempted to liberate women by educating them about the new gender reforms.

While she had many visions throughout her political career, perhaps her most interesting was her promotion of Free Love. She did not promote “casual sex” per se, but she believed that women’s sexuality was oppressed. According to her Theses on Communist Morality in the Sphere of Marital Relations, she stated that “sexuality is a human instinct as natural as hunger or thirst.” As a communist, she did not support the idea of a traditional family unit; in her eyes, citizens would be supported, not by their families, but by society. Treating women as property was not something she wanted to continue in Russia.

Later in her career, she became a diplomat, working in various countries around the world. Unfortunately, she was never allowed in the United States, but had posts in Norway and Mexico. Her writings continued to be influential during the Feminist Movement of the 1970s.

Sources:
http://soviethistory.macalester.edu/index.php?page=subject&SubjectID=1917woman&Year=1917&navi=byYear

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra_Kollontai

http://search.proquest.com/docview/103676060/F99725BDC475492BPQ/4?accountid=14826

https://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1921/theses-morality.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_Revolution

https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/

http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Code+of+Laws+on+Marriage+and+the+Family

With the signing of the October Manifesto came a new era of rule in Russia. No longer was the country under an autocracy; a constitutional monarchy was in the works. The document granted civil liberties and even created a legislative body known as the Duma. In support of this legislation came a group initially known as the Union of October 17, but today is famously known as the Octobrists.

The leader of this group Alexander Guchkov (who truly deserves the “Mr. October” moniker, sorry Reggie) wanted the Tsar to finally undertake the reforms they had sought to complete. With the signing of the October Manifesto, he got his wish, and the Octobrist party could finally move forward.

The Octobrists’ agenda featured four main parts:

1. The preservation of the unity and indivisibility of the Russia state, whilst allowing individual nationalities significant rights in the cultural field;
2. The development and strengthening of the foundations of a constitutional monarchy with a representative assembly elected on a broad franchise…
3. The guaranteeing of civil rights, and the inviolability of the individual, his residence, correspondence and property.
4. The urgent summoning of the State Duma to put through political reforms… to deal with such matters as

• the peasant question- the peasantry should be granted the same civil rights as the rest of the population; peasant land-holding should be extended and regulated
• workers’ insurance, a limitation of the working day and the freedom to form trade unions and to strike
• the development of local self-government
• measures on education
• judicial and administrative reforms
• economic and financial measures to achieve a more rational and just tax system (Source: D.N Shipov, Vospominaniia i dumy o perezhitom. Moscow, 1918, pp. 404-6. via Web)

The group wanted peace throughout Russia and between the classes, and they wanted a stronger government to help with these reforms. By the third Duma, the Octobrist party held the majority. This, however, did not help with speeding the pace of the reforms.

Guchkov was elected to be the speaker of the Duma in 1910 (interestingly enough, after this dueling incident), but as chairman Pyotr Stolypin “became more and more violent and reactionary,” the Octobrists were forced out of office and Guchkov resigned.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Guchkov
http://community.dur.ac.uk/a.k.harrington/17octprg.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_October_17

COUNT WOUNDED IN DUEL.: Guchkoff, Leader of Russian Octobrists, Shoots Count Uvaroff. New York Times (1857-1922); Dec 1, 1909; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851-2010)

DUMA RECONVENES TO-DAY.: Octobrists Instruct Their Deputies to Press for Reforms. New York Times (1857-1922); Oct 23, 1909; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851-2010)

As a photography student myself, there is nothing I love more than photographs of people. These images present much more than a face– they illustrate a sense of time, culture and place. The collection of Prokudin-Gorskii images vary from objects to landscapes and of course people; the photograph “Jewish Children with their Teacher”, details a meeting between traditionally-dressed jewish youth and a master in the city of Samarkand, and it evoked a desire to discover more about the setting.

Samarkand, now the third largest city in Uzbekistan, was once a major post on the Silk Road and later a part of Russian Turkestan. Because of this, the city has a vast array of influences, religions and cultures. In particular, the architecture of the city can be used to portray the various spheres of influence that Samarkand endured over the last few hundred years.

Dating back to around 1500 BCE, Samarkand has a rich history. The city saw its peak in the 14th and 15th centuries, with much of its influences coming from Islam. Architecturally, Samarkand saw a rise in mosques and mausoleums in this era, the two most famous being the Bibi Khanum and the Gur-I Amir (pictured below).

Gur-I Amir (source: paradoxplace.com)

Bibi Khanum (source: spiegel.de)

Until the 18th and 19th centuries, the city fell into a period of turmoil. In 1888, however, Samarkand became home to the Trans-Caspian railway and was under Russian control. The architecture from this period lacked the grandiose of the earlier structures. In classic Soviet style, these buildings are more about function than form.

View of Soviet influence from Bibi Khanum (source: greatmirror.com)

Soviet architecture (source: greatmirror.com)

The initial photo by Prokudin-Gorskii emphasizes the ethnic diversity of Russia at the turn of the century. Cities like Samarkand, with a cultural richness, mimic this diversity and provided Russia with important ties to other global powers.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/

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